(Research paper, term paper). And
some assignments may have two purposes. In all cases, the purpose will be clear
at the beginning of your paper, and your paper must achieve its purpose in
order to be successful.
Audience Engagement. As with all writing, academic
writing is directed to a specific audience in mind. Unless your instructor says
otherwise, consider your audience to be fellow students with the same level of
knowledge as yourself. As students in the field, they are interested in your
topic, but perhaps not so interested in reading a paper. So you will have to
engage them with your ideas and catch their interest with your writing style.
Imagine that they are also skeptical, so that you must use the appropriate
reasoning and evidence to convince them of your ideas.
Clear Point of View. Academic writing, even that with an informative purpose, is
not just a list of facts or summaries of sources. Although you will present
other people’s ideas and research, the goal of your paper is to show
what you think about these things. Your paper
will have and support
your own original idea
about the topic. This is called the thesis statement, and it is your answer to
the question.
Single Focus. Every paragraph (even every
sentence) in your paper will support your thesis statement. There will be no
unnecessary, irrelevant, unimportant, or contradictory information (Your paper
will likely include contradictory or alternative points of view, but you will
respond to and critique them to further strengthen your own point of view).
Logical Organization. Academic writing follows a standard organizational pattern.
For academic essays and papers, there is an introduction, body, and conclusion.
Each paragraph logically leads to the next one.
o
The introduction
catches the readers’ attention, provides background information, and lets the
reader know what to expect. It also has the thesis statement.
o
The body
paragraphs support the thesis
statement. Each body paragraph has one main point to support the thesis, which
is named in a topic sentence. Each point is then supported in the paragraph
with logical reasoning and evidence. Each sentence connects to the one before
and after it. The readers do not have to work to find the connection between
ideas.
o
The conclusion
summarizes the paper’s thesis and main points and shows the reader the
significance of the paper’s findings.
Strong Support. Each body paragraph will have sufficient and relevant support
for the topic sentence and thesis statement.
This support will consist of facts, examples, description, personal
experience, and expert opinions and quotations.
Clear and Complete Explanations. This is very important! As the
writer, you need to do all the work for the reader. The reader should not have
to think hard to understand your ideas, logic, or organization. English readers
expect everything to be done for them; your thoughts and thought processes
should be clearly and completely explained.
Effective Use of Research. Your paper should refer to a variety of current, high quality,
professional and academic sources. You will use your research to support your
own ideas; therefore, it must be integrated into your writing and not presented
separately. That means that source material will be introduced, analyzed,
explained, and then cited.
Research and
APA Style Guide 2010 covers this topic in depth.
Correct APA Style. All academic papers should follow the guidelines of the
American Psychological Association as found in
Research and APA Style Guide 2010, regarding in-text citations, the
reference list, and format.
Writing Style. Because this is your work,
you should use your own words whenever possible. Do not try to write like a
boring, overly formal scholarly article. Use the natural conversational style
that you would use in the classroom. Your writing should be clear, concise, and
easy to read. It is also very important that there are no grammar, spelling,
punctuation, or vocabulary mistakes in academic writing. Errors convey to the
reader that you do not care.
And finally, this rule will
override all the principles:
ALWAYS FOLLOW THE DIRECTIONS OF YOUR
INSTRUCTOR. Every instructor
has a reason for giving you an
assignment, and each instructor's requirements may differ. Follow your
instructor’s directions to get the most from an assignment.
You’ve just received your first
academic writing assignment. What do you do? If you are a beginning writer,
take it step by step. The following writing process has worked for millions of
university students.
Choose
a topic.
Think
(brainstorm).
Research.
Discover
your thesis.
Plan (outline).
Write.
Revise.
Edit.
Proofread.
This guide will go through each of these steps with you.
Beginning writers should follow this process. However, as you become more
experienced, you may find that a different order works best for you. That is
OK. You will also find that you have to do some steps more than once; for
example, you may do research before you choose a topic, as you outline, and as
you revise. You will certainly need to revise your paper several times before
doing the final proofreading. And of course, you should never stop thinking.
Choosing and
Narrowing a Topic
Sometimes your instructor will give you a list of possible
questions or themes, and other times you will have the freedom to choose your
own topic. Sometimes the assignment will have a specific purpose (argumentative
essay, analysis paper), and other times you will have the freedom to determine
the purpose (research paper, term paper). This freedom can be both great and
terrifying. If you have trouble choosing what to write about, start with a few
ideas and choose the best one after several steps. You can also consult with
your instructor about the best topic choice.
How to Choose a Topic
Think about things related to the course that you are
interested in. If there is nothing which interests you, look through the textbook,
instructor-recommended resources, course slides, handouts, and current
periodicals for possible ideas.
Then you need to narrow your ideas from subjects to topics.
A subject is a broad concept: conflict management, abortion, the Cold War,
capital budgeting, organizational culture, global warming, Toyota’s management
style, and EU agricultural subsidies are a few examples. These are not paper
topics; these could all be the subjects of books.
Narrow a subject by looking at its smaller parts, or by
choosing a specific problem, time period, or place to cover. You may need to do
a little general research here if you do not know much about the subject. Also
asking yourself “Who? What? Where? When? Why? and How?” questions about the
subject can help you limit the subject and determine your interests.
Doing this with abortion, for example, leads to topics like
the reasons American women choose abortion rather than adoption, the
psychological effects of previous abortions on women who become pregnant again,
the consequences of Poland’s ban on abortions on Polish women’s lives,
solutions to ending the practice of using abortion as a tool for gender
selection in India, and whether or not the morning after pill should be sold to
girls under 16. From here, choose a topic which fits the prescribed purpose of
your paper (if there is one).
Specific topics like these are much more likely to fit the
goal of academic writing and to fit the number of pages allowed in your paper.
Writing your Topic as a Question
Once you have a specific topic for your paper, write your
topic as the question which your paper will answer. Doing this is a great way
to focus your paper and ensure that you meet the paper’s purpose. In fact, your
purpose will determine the type of question that you ask.
For example, an argumentative paper would probably have a
yes/no question, such as “Should the U.S. have used the atomic bomb in World
War II?” or “Should the morning after pill be sold to girls under 16?” or
“Should animal organs be used for human transplants?” or “Which is a better
strategy for the EU to follow to encourage change in Burma – engagement or
isolation?” And then, of course, your paper would argue for your answer to the
question.
An analytical paper most likely has a why/how question, such
as “Why has childhood obesity been increasing in the United States?” or “How
has Poland’s ban on abortions affected women’s lives?” or “How effective is the
article in supporting the author’s thesis?” or “How could the EU best reform
its agricultural subsidies?” And then, of course, your paper will analyze the
various answers, justifying your point of view to the audience.
An informative paper often has a what/why/how question, such
as “What are the negative aspects of wind energy?” or “What are the causes of
anorexia in teenage boys?” or “How can managers evaluate whether to invest
money in a software upgrade project?” And then, of course, your paper will
explain the various answers, giving the readers a new way of looking at the
topic.
Characteristics of a Good Paper Topic
Your
question does not have a simple answer. A good question has several
alternative answers, or no accepted answer, or maybe an easy but unsatisfactory
answer. In other words, there is no one “right” answer to your question. Your
paper will give and justify
your own best
answer(s), and it will require research and critical thinking to do this.
Your question is worth answering. The
readers will care about the answer to your question. Your answer will have some
significance.
Your paper will achieve its purpose. Will your informative paper
truly give your readers a new perspective? Will your readers accept your
analysis in your analytical paper? Will your persuasive paper succeed in
changing your readers’ view? This is
especially important to consider with persuasive paper topics. Avoid topics in
which arguments are mostly based on (usually unchanging) personal beliefs,
rather than reason and evidence. Whether abortion should be legalized is such a
topic.
You are interested in
the topic. You will spend a lot of time with this topic, so choose
something that will not bore or torture you.
The topic is the
right size for the length of the paper. Make sure you will not have too
little or too much to say for the number of pages allowed.
There is enough (but not too much)
information available in reliable sources. If you find too much
information, you will need to narrow your topic further; if you find too little
information, you should widen your topic.
You
have enough time to do what you need to do. How much time do you have
before the due date? You may have to limit the complexity of your topic if you
have waited too long to start….
When you have a topic, start brainstorming. Write down all
the possible answers to your question, and write down all the information,
opinions, and questions you have about your topic. Brainstorming will help you
see what you already know, what you think, what you think you know, and what
else you need to find out about your topic. Writing things down also ensures
that you will not forget your great ideas later. (Although this is a really
short section, it is a very important step!)
Doing research is covered on pp. 3-12 of the Research and APA Style Guide. Read them!
What you must remember is that “doing good research takes
time.” Do not expect to do research once and find everything that you need for
your paper. Research is an on-going part of the writing process. You will start
now, doing general research to learn more about your topic, but you will
continue doing research throughout the writing process, as you discover a
thesis, make a basic outline and then a detailed outline, write your paper, and
revise your paper. Also, do not be afraid to change your topic a little (or a
lot) if your research leads you in a different direction.
To
make research more effective and less time-consuming, you can do three things:
Plan your research
before your start, using the research guide’s tips (pp. 3-4).
Set up and follow a
research schedule. Give yourself a set amount of time to do your
preliminary research. Start working on your paper, and go back to researching
later when you know exactly what you need to find.
Immediately record source information.
Write down the address or bookmark the web page of every good source, even if
you are not sure if you will use it…you may want to later.
The thesis statement is the most
important sentence in your paper. If someone asked you, “What does your paper
say?” your answer would be your thesis statement. Everything you write will support this statement.
A good
thesis statement usually includes
Main idea of the
paper. ONE idea. The entire paper is based on this statement.
Your opinion or point
of view. The thesis statement is not a fact nor a question, but your view
of the topic and what you want to say about it.
Purpose of the paper.
From the thesis, it should be clear what the paper will do.
Answer to the
research question. Ask yourself the question and then answer it with your
thesis. Is it truly an answer? (If not, change the question or the answer!)
An element of
surprise. This means that the thesis is interesting, engaging, and perhaps
not so expected.
Clarity. It
should be understandable after one reading and have no mistakes.
When should you write your thesis statement? It depends on
when you know the answer to your research question. You may have an idea before
you begin researching, you may discover it as you research, or you may not know
it until you have almost finished writing your paper. It’s useful to have a
thesis idea at the beginning to help you focus, but it’s also OK to change your
thesis statement as you go through the writing process and learn and think more
about your topic.
After you have a preliminary thesis statement (the answer to
your research question), you can make a basic outline. You may be able to do
this before doing any research, or you may need to read more about the topic
first. You should, however, have a basic outline before you finish researching
in order to ensure that your paper is focused on YOUR thoughts, not just your
sources’.
A basic outline is your first attempt to organize the ideas
of your paper. It will help you focus your research and consider the order of
your ideas. To make one:
Choosing and ordering points
1.
Write your question and answer (preliminary thesis
statement). Don’t worry about writing a beautiful, memorable, strong thesis
statement yet; just a simple answer to your question is enough to start the
basic outline.
2.
Write down all the reasons/arguments/effects/solutions
(each type of paper is different) you have to answer your question and support
your thesis. Do not look at your sources – use your own brain.
3.
Look at your list and organize the ideas. Some may be
combined as one larger idea; some may just repeat others in different words.
You may decide to delete some too.
4.
The remaining ideas will be the main points of your
paper. These ideas are the sections of your paper.
5.
Decide how to order these points. What order will you
follow – chronological, cause
to effect, problem to solution, most important to least
important, weakest to strongest? Which order will make your paper the strongest
and most interesting?
6.
Your paper should also cover alternative or opposing
viewpoints to show that you have done complete research and considered all
ideas. In this “con section,” you will present and refute (argue against) other
views of your topic.
EXAMPLE
BASIC OUTLINE before research (argumentative paper) Research Question: Are birth
control pills safe for women?
Thesis: Birth control pills are
safe.
Sections:
I. Pills contain
nothing harmful to health. II. Pills bring health benefits to women.
III.
Myths about birth control pills are wrong.
|
EXAMPLE BASIC OUTLINE before
research (analysis paper) Research Question: Why has childhood obesity increased in
the United States?
Thesis: Childhood obesity has increased in the
United States due to the unhealthy environment in which many American
children are raised.
Sections:
I.
Children eat more than in the past.
II. Children
often do not eat healthy meals.
III. Children
do not have as much physical activity as in the past.
IV. Parents
model bad habits.
V. Others
say that food companies, advertising are responsible.
|
Breaking sections into smaller parts
7.
Those are very basic outlines. It is possible to add
more to them, especially after a little research. For each section, think of
how much support you have. If you have a lot of supporting details (facts,
examples, expert opinions) and explanations, then you will need more than one
paragraph for that section. Some sections, especially your strongest, need more
than one paragraph, while others may have only one.
8.
Divide your sections into smaller points. Write the
idea of each possible paragraph as a sentence so you can see how/whether it
still answers the research question.
EXAMPLE BASIC OUTLINE after more
thinking and/or research (argumentative paper) Research Question: Are birth
control pills safe for women?
Thesis: Although there are some
disadvantages, birth control pills are safe.
Sections:
I.
Pills contain nothing harmful to health.
II.
Pills bring some health benefits to women.
IV. Myths
about birth control pills are wrong.
1. They do not cause ovarian cancer, but prevent it.
2. They do not cause breast cancer.
3.
It is
safe to use them when breastfeeding if done right.
IV. There are some minor
disadvantages, but not for healthy women.
(4 sections, with a total of 6 paragraphs)
|
EXAMPLE BASIC OUTLINE after more
thinking and/or research (analysis paper) Research Question: Why has
childhood obesity increased in the United States?
Thesis: Childhood obesity has increased in the
United States due to the unhealthy environment in which many American
children are raised.
Sections:
I.
Children eat more than in the past (portion sizes have
increased).
II. Children
often do not eat healthy meals.
1.
Healthy
food is hard to get (expensive + rare).
2.
Schools
provide unhealthy food
III. Children
do not have as much physical activity as in the past.
1.
Physical
activity in schools has decreased.
2.
Some
children live in areas unsafe for outdoor activity.
3.
Many
children watch too much TV.
IV. Parents
model bad habits.
1.
Parents
do not have time, money, or information to prepare healthy meals.
V. Food
companies and advertising may bear some responsibility, but parents should be
able to help children resist them.
(5 sections, with a total of 8 paragraphs)
|
An important part of the
research and planning process is taking notes of the information and ideas that
you find. As you read a source, marking and writing down the important things
that you read will help you to remember them and understand them better. It may
seem time-consuming, but writing the paper will go faster if you already have
all your ideas marked and written down.
Start taking notes from or on
your sources during or after your research period. It’s easier to do this after
you have a basic outline. Then you can organize the notes around the main
points of your paper. Still, you will probably have more notes than you need
for your paper because your original ideas and organization will change.
Where to take notes
On
photocopies or printed Internet documents highlight or underline important
information.
o
Take notes in the margin. Write down your
comments/questions about the information. Note which main point from your paper
the information supports (this will help you when you are organizing and
writing your paper later).
On a
computer file create a separate Word document for each section of your
paper.
o
Take notes of important information from paper
sources. Don’t forget to include the author’s name.
o
Put text copied from web pages in quotation
marks. Be very careful – this often leads to unintentional plagiarism. Don’t
forget to include the author’s name and web address.
In a
notebook: Write the author's name at the top of the page.
o
Take notes of important information. In the
margin, note which main point from your paper the information supports.
On
note cards: Write one piece of information on each card.
:
o
Put the main point from your paper at the top of
the card so you can organize all the notes later.
What to take notes about
Background information about
your topic which is necessary for your paper.
Arguments and explanations which
support or oppose your ideas.
Facts, examples, expert opinions, and other supporting
details.
How to take
notes
Summarize – Write the main points of the source in your own words.
Good for sources with ideas, but not many details, related to your topic.
Paraphrase – retell important information in your own words; use
quotation marks for directly copied words. Good for details which will
support/oppose you.
Quote – copy the exact words from the source. Good for strong,
exciting passages. Comment – write any questions or ideas you think of when you are
reading sources.
Planning –
Detailed Outline
After going through your sources
and taking notes, you can create a detailed outline by adding details to your
basic outline as well as adding any new points that you found. A detailed outline plans each body paragraph
of your paper for you, from main point to supporting points to supporting
details.
Many students would prefer to
skip this part of the writing process and just start writing their papers,
since it takes a lot of time, thinking, and re-thinking to develop a good
outline. Well, if you are an advanced academic writer, go ahead. Writers with a
lot of experience know what works best for them. However, if you are still
learning how to write academic papers, you should make a detailed outline for
several reasons:
You will learn whether you have
enough support for your thesis statement.
You
will have a map to follow when writing your paper.
You will avoid major
organizational problems in your paper if you organize your ideas before you
write.
You will have a chance to think
more about your topic, refining your ideas.
Some instructors will require draft outlines before your
paper is due, or even final outlines with your paper, so you need to know how
to write outlines.
After you have mastered the
academic writing process, then you can decide whether or when to write a
detailed outline. Here are the steps to follow when making your outline:
1.
First, make changes to your basic outline’s thesis and
main points until you are satisfied with your ideas and the order of your sections.
2.
Then go through your notes and find supporting points
for each section of your outline.
3.
Organize the supporting points in each section.
4.
Go through your notes and add supporting details
(facts, examples, expert opinion, descriptions, quotes, etc.) to each point. Be
thorough so that the reader of your outline can understand how the detail
supports the point.
Always include the source of any research
that you put in your outline (Author, year). If you use the source’s exact
words in your outline, use quotation marks.
5.
Now, based on the amount of supporting points and
details in each section, you can determine how many paragraphs you will
need.
6.
Divide your outline into paragraphs, each with a main
point written in sentence form (preliminary topic sentence) and list of
supporting points and details.
EXAMPLE
DETAILED OUTLINE - 3 paragraphs (argumentative paper) Thesis:
Although there are some disadvantages, birth control pills are safe.
Section/Paragraph #1 Pills contain
nothing harmful to women’s health.
1.
Pills
contain hormones produced by women’s bodies.
- Combination (estrogen + progestin) and progestin only
(Planned Parenthood, 2003)
-
Estrogen
– activates uterus, thickens walls. Progesterone – helps uterus accept egg
(National Cancer Institute, 2003)
2.
Pills
give women the right amount of hormones so they can’t get pregnant
-
Estrogen
pill stops egg production, progestin pill will “thicken cervical mucus” so no
fertilization (Planned Parenthood, 2003, Basics section, para. 2)
- Hormones “fool the body into acting as if it’s pregnant”
(Alice, 1998)
Section/Paragraph #2 Taking birth control pills has
benefits for women's health.
1.
Avoid
unwanted pregnancy
2.
Improve
skin
-
less
acne, less “excess” hair (Greenfield, 2004a)
3.
Other
benefits are fewer ovarian cysts, and less likelihood of anemia (Greenfield,
2004a) 4. Less painful menstruation
-
not so
many cramps, lighter flow (Planned Parenthood, 2003)
5. Women
can enjoy life
Section III: Myths about birth control pills are wrong.
Paragraph #3 Birth control pills do not cause ovarian
cancer.
1.
On the
contrary, birth control pills help fight against cancer.
-
Progestin
pill caused “increased cell turnover in the ovarian epithelium, indicating
that progestin might lower ovarian cancer risk by activating
cancer-preventative molecular pathways in the ovary – Duke Comprehensive
Cancer Center (“Oral contraceptives,” 2002). More cell turnover means
pre-cancerous cells are destroyed earlier and faster.
- Women who took pills with more
progestin had lower risk of ovarian cancer than women on pills with more
estrogen, but all women taking the pill had lower risk of ovarian cancer than
other women (“Oral contraceptives,” 2002)
2.
Some
doctors even advise women to take the pill for five years because of its
benefits in preventing ovarian cancer (Greenfield, 2004b)
3.
The
longer women use pill, more protection they have against ovarian cancer.
- Women who used pill for 1 year had 10-12% less chance of
ovarian cancer.
- Women who use it for 5 years
decrease risk of ovarian cancer by 50%. – Centers for Disease Control and
Prevention, Harvard Medical School (National Cancer Institute, 2003)
4.
Pill can
especially help women with ovarian cancer in family history.
…
|
EXAMPLE DETAILED OUTLINE (informative paper)
Thesis: Golden Retrievers are valuable as
support animals.
Section I: Retrievers are intelligent and thus trainable.
Body
Paragraph 1: Golden Retrievers are one of the most intelligent and trainable
dog breeds.
1.
Hunting dogs in 19th century
(Benji, 1992)
2.
Very intelligent dogs
-
“In several current studies,
Golden Retrievers have consistently placed in the top five breeds when tested
for intelligence” (Maximillian, 2003, p. 1238).
-
First in a survey of 14 intelligence
+ training categories. Retrievers, German Shepherds, and Labrador Retrievers
all usually at top (Huff, 2008).
3.
Better behavior than other
intelligent dogs
-
More trainable than G. shepherds
and Labs (Huff, 2008)
-
Only breed with 100% passing rate
at obedience schools (“The semi-annual study,” 2008).
4.
Intelligence and trainability make
them successful helping dogs in a variety of tasks.
Section II: Retrievers are successful in many different
programs.
BP
# 2: Retrievers are successful seeing-eye dogs.
1.
Retrievers can remember and follow
commands.
-
“their ability to effectively
assimilate large numbers of training cues and to effectively recall that
information makes them ideal candidates for seeing-eye purposes” (Spot,
2006a, p. 14).
-
Dogs must remember all commands
and locations, such as busy intersections, crowded stores, bus stops, etc.
-
only takes average of 3 trips for
Retrievers to learn everything (Spot, 2006a)
2.
Retrievers’ good behavior makes
them less likely to react aggressively in stress (Tin, 2008), which is
necessary for seeing-eye dogs who may encounter stressful situations.
BP
#3: Retrievers’ sense of smell makes
them invaluable as drug-sniffing dogs.
1. Retrievers
have a great sense of smell.
-
Can distinguish more than 150
smells (Benji, 1992) 2. Disposition and trainability make
them good sniffing dogs.
-
Used at Toronto’s Pearson
International Airport to find drugs since 1978. Now used at more than 30
airports and secondary schools in Canada (Save the Pets, n.d.).
-
US, Japan, Peru, and others are
starting to do this too (numerous articles).
BP
#4: Retrievers have success in criminal rehabilitation.
1. Programs
to raise seeing-eye puppies
-
Usually raised by a family for a
year before training (Fido &
Rover, 2008)
2. Dr.
Dan Canine’s prison program (prisoners raise puppies) – a success - started
in 1992, prisoners care for puppies from 8 weeks to 1 year.
-
released prisoners have a drop in
re-offending rates compared to released prisoners convicted of similar crimes
at same time
- Prisoners
gain maturity. Canine says, “the emotional commitment necessary to raise a
puppy, love it, and then give it away seems to help inmates cope more ably
with post-prison life” (Shaggy, 2005, Effect on Prisoner section, para. 12).
3.
So prisoners and Retrievers gain
skills and maturity.
BP
#5: Retrievers are successful in therapy programs for the elderly and
disabled.
1.
Companionship programs for
elderly, physiotherapy for disabled with Golden Retrievers were started due
to Canine’s program (Bauwau, 2009).
2.
Pets benefit old or disabled –
they gain hope.
-
Dr. Sandy: “The patients report
feelings of greater optimism about their disability, and their hospital stays
are shorter than estimated” (Zelda, 2007, para. 2).
3.
Retrievers = best breed for this
-
Other dogs, smaller or mixed, have
more discipline problems (Bauwau, 2009).
4.
Retrievers’ intelligence and
trainability fit these programs perfectly, and they give caregivers a sense
of responsibility and hope.
|
There are many ways to write the first draft of your paper.
The key is to be prepared before you start – have a purpose, a thesis, enough
research, and a plan (some sort of outline). And then, just write.
You could start at the beginning and write until the end. Or
you could write paragraphs separately, in any order you like. Many writers do
the body paragraphs first and save the introduction and conclusion for the end.
Advice for
the first draft
Read about the introduction,
body, and conclusion in this guide before you start.
Know how to use source material
(see Research and APA Style Guide,
pp. 13-26) before you start.
Then just write! Do not worry
about perfection yet. Do not worry about grammar.
Keep going! If you are missing
information, mark the spot and then do more research later to fill in the gap.
Be aware of plagiarism. Write
down the source whenever you use anything from a source.
Do not wait until the last minute! You will need time to
revise, edit, and proofread.
The introduction of an academic paper is usually 1-2
paragraphs long – longer for longer papers with more background information. In
general, your introduction should do the following things:
Gain the
immediate attention of the audience
Here are some (but not all) of the ways to
start an interesting and relevant introduction:
o
Short anecdote that leads to your topic : Surprising
statement/fact that relates to your topic : Quotation from a famous person or expert
that introduces your topic : Brief and INTERESTING historical review
of your topic o Statement which stresses the importance
of your topic
o
Contradiction – someone else’s opinion (opposite
of yours) about your topic
Do NOT be boring! Use the first
sentence (often called the “hook sentence”) to hook the readers’ interest.
Do NOT be too general!
Immediately dive into your specific topic; don’t waste space with a general
introduction of the entire subject area. Remember that your audience is
familiar with the subject area. And never start with the origins of humankind:
“Since the beginning of history”!
Do NOT begin with your thesis idea! Use the
introduction to build up to your thesis statement, so it comes with a little
tension.
Provide any necessary background
information or definition of any terms.
Give only the history, facts, or definitions
that readers will need to understand your topic and thesis. Keep in mind what
the audience already knows.
o
Use facts/statistics to show the problem if
necessary.
o
Avoid dictionary and encyclopedia definitions if
possible and explain in your own words what the important concepts in your
paper mean.
o
Use source information to provide background
information, but not to answer the research question or give your opinion.
Make sure that the readers now know enough to
follow your paper, but not too much that they have lost the focus of your
paper.
Briefly introduce the main points
(sections) of the paper
In academic writing, the writer
lets the reader know what to expect. Provide a brief overview of your paper’s
main points.
Do NOT support or try to prove
these points. Do not go into depth.
Do NOT just write a one-sentence list of your points. You
can't summarize a great idea in one word.
Have a
thesis statement (often the last sentence)
This guide has covered the thesis statement
already, but because it’s the most important sentence of your paper, we’ll go
over it again. In the thesis, answer the research question in a clear,
straightforward statement.
Make
sure the purpose and point of view of your paper are clear.
o
Do NOT write a long, wordy, confusing thesis
statement (especially do not try to include all of your main points).
o
Do NOT announce your intentions. Avoid “This
paper will prove…” or “I’m going to write about…” Don’t tell
the audience what you are going to do; just do it.
Body paragraphs can be written in many ways, depending on
your purpose. However, each paragraph should have ONE point which supports the
thesis statement. Most body paragraphs will have:
Topic
Sentence
Usually, but not always, the
first sentence of the paragraph. If it’s not the first sentence, it should be
very clear which sentence is the topic sentence.
It introduces the paragraph's
main idea, makes your point about this idea, and relates to the thesis
statement.
The topic sentence connects to
the previous paragraph.
The topic sentence is NOT a
fact. It has a point of view.
The topic sentence is NOT something
from a source. It is your idea.
Every sentence in the paragraph will support this topic
sentence.
Explanation of topic sentence
The sentence(s) after the topic sentence often
further describe the main idea of the paragraph.
Support
The topic sentence is supported
by supporting points, details, and explanations, often presented in sandwiches
(review pp. 23-25 in
Research and APA
Style Guide about
sandwiching).
A body paragraph could have one to several sandwiches, depending on how long
and in-depth the detail is.
Supporting points are the ideas
that support the main point of the paragraph. These can be written in your own
words and then supported by details.
Specific details are
very important to show the readers that your ideas are valid.
o
When using facts, examples, studies, experts’
opinions, etc. be as specific as possible. Use the expert’s names and
professions. Use names, places, dates and other specific information about
examples. Include numbers and dates. For scientific studies, explain a little
about how the study was done. Use vivid descriptions to make the details clear
to the readers.
o
Make sure the details are relevant to your point. A common mistake is including misunderstood
source information that does not actually support the student’s point.
o
Remember that one example does not prove
something. Use more than one example or source in a paragraph.
o
Check with your instructor if you can also
include your own personal experience as a detail.
Clear and complete
explanations are very important because the readers are expecting you to
explain everything to them. The readers do not expect to have to think too
hard. So explain why/how the details support the topic sentence, and thus the
thesis.
o
Your explanation should not just repeat the
source material, but rather interpret and analyze it.
o
Your explanation should not simply repeat your
thesis or topic sentence, but rather explain how the source material supports
those ideas.
Do NOT rely on sources too much. It’s YOUR
paragraph, so it should contain your ideas about the topic as well. Look at the
example papers in this guide and the
Research
and APA Style Guide to see how the writers balance source material and
their own ideas about it in each body paragraph.
Make sure all your support has a logical order
and good connections.
Concluding
sentence
The last sentence should review
the body paragraph, emphasize the point and/or thesis again, or prepare the
reader for the next body paragraph.
Do NOT end the paragraph with a source citation. End with
your own idea.
A final, important guideline about body paragraphs:
No long body paragraphs!
It is
difficult for readers to stay focused on long blocks of text. ¾ of a page is
generally as long as a paragraph should be. If your paragraph is much longer,
find a logical way to divide it into two body paragraphs.
The conclusion may be the shortest paragraph, but it’s also
the most important because this is what the reader will remember. A conclusion
usually does these things:
Connect to the last sentence of the
previous paragraph
Use an advanced style.
In conclusion, to summarize, at the end are rather boring and
typical although they will work. Try to be more sophisticated by repeating or
connecting ideas in another way.
Summarize the findings of your paper
Remind the readers of the paper’s main ideas
and wrap up your argument.
Restate
the thesis in different words/phrases.
o
Briefly summarize the main points of your paper.
Again, say these in a different way, so readers are not bored by repetition of
the same sentences and phrases.
o
Use your own thoughts, not your sources’. The
place for source support was in the body paragraphs, not the conclusion.
o
Do NOT write any new information, points, or
support in the conclusion.
Show the significance of your findings
Explain why your paper is important – What
does it mean? What does it solve? What does it say about your topic? What does
it show about the future of your topic? What should the readers take away from
your paper?
End with a strong, memorable concluding
statement(s)
Also known as the “Wow statement,” the last
sentence(s) of your paper should make your readers say, “Wow! I’m glad I read
this paper.” There are several ways to do this:
o End with the significance of your paper,
as described above.
o
Relate your conclusion to the hook sentence(s)
from your introduction. This can be a very effective way of wrapping up your
paper.
o
End with an idea for the reader to think about –
a prediction or recommendation perhaps.
Do NOT ask a question that
leaves the reader uncertain. The purpose of academic writing is not to confuse
the reader, but to enlighten the reader.
Do NOT be too general. Stay
focused on your specific topic.
DO
NOT be too shocking, unbelievable, sweet, or obvious.
Because academic papers should have a clear organizational
structure, throughout your paper, you need to show the readers how your ideas
are connected between paragraphs and between sentences. Often this happens
naturally as you write; however, sometimes you will need to make the connection
clearer to the reader. Here are 3 ways to do this:
Pronouns
(he/she/they/this/that/these/those)
Use a pronoun to refer to a noun from the
previous sentence.
Teachers should not put grades
on essays. This would eliminate
students' tears.
Angela Rizzi argues that grades do not motivate students.
She thinks teachers should only
write comments, but not grades.
Repeated words/ideas
Use the same word or a synonym in the next
sentence.
The policy on changing
classes is too strict. According to the
policy, a student must get the signatures of 7 different people before moving to another class.
Transition
words
These words clearly state the relationship
between two sentences. Here are some transitions; if you are not sure what a
word means, look it up in a dictionary.
o to start – first,
first of all, to begin with o to add
another idea – in addition, furthermore, also, moreover, what's more o to add a more important idea – more importantly, what's worse,
what's more o to add your last idea – finally, most of all, most
importantly o to contrast with the previous idea – however, nevertheless, on the
other hand o to show the result of the previous idea – therefore,
thus, consequently, as a result o to emphasize
an idea – in fact, in particular
o to give an
example of the previous idea – for instance, for example, to illustrate o to show a
time relationship between ideas – first, second, then, next, finally
While they are very helpful, there are two big
problems with using these words:
o Students
over-use them. Too many transition words at the beginning of sentences can be
annoying. Do NOT use a lot of transition words. One or two in a paragraph is
enough.
o Students
often use them incorrectly. Please see the box below about proper use of these
words.
USING TRANSITIONS
Sentence. Transition, sentence. OR Sentence;
transition, sentence.
Transitions usually connect two
sentences. Therefore, they will usually appear at the beginning of a complete
sentence – after a period or semi-colon.
The
law does not stop teenagers from drinking therefore it is ineffective. WRONG The law does not stop teenagers from drinking, therefore it is
ineffective. WRONG The law
does not stop teenagers from drinking; therefore, it is ineffective. RIGHT!
The law does not stop teenagers from
drinking. Therefore, it is ineffective.
RIGHT!
Transitions must also be followed by a comma and a complete sentence.
Many organizations use English,
for example, the UN, the EU, and NATO. WRONG
Many
organizations use English. For example, the UN, the EU, and NATO. WRONG Many
organizations use English. For example, it is one of the official
languages
of the UN, the EU, and NATO. RIGHT
|
Your first draft is complete, but your paper is far from
finished. The next step is to revise your paper – strengthen the content. Start
this at least a week before your paper is due. In fact, you don’t need to wait
until you have a complete first draft to start revising. You can revise individual
paragraphs as you finish them as well.
Know what to fix
Before you can revise, you need
to know what to fix. How can you find
that out?
Get
feedback. In some courses, you and your classmates will be asked to
exchange papers to read and comment on them in class or online. If not, ask a
friend to read it. You can also ask your instructor to look at parts of your
paper (most instructors are happy to help if you have started your paper early.
They may not be willing if you ask for advice at the last-minute). Listen to
the advice of your reviewers, but remember that in the end, your paper is your
responsibility.
Refer to the paper requirements or grading
criteria or look at the checklist in this guide. Read your paper and look
at the requirements or checklist at the same time. Check off what you have, and
mark what you need to fix.
Outline. Make an outline of your first
draft by listing the main point of each topic sentence. This will show you whether
your ideas are clearly organized and whether they focus on answering the
research question (the thesis).
Read
your paper for focus. Read every sentence of your paper. After each, ask
yourself, “Does this support the thesis statement?”
If it doesn’t, cross it out or change it. [Or
consider changing your thesis.]
Read
each body paragraph for support. Read a body paragraph, and then read its
topic sentence again. Did the paragraph support that sentence enough? Were
there enough specific details – facts, examples, descriptions, expert
opinions?
Re-read your paper as the audience.
Imagine that you are seeing your paper for the first time (this is often hard
to do, which is why it’s good to have another person read your paper). As you
read, write down any comments or questions your audience might have. Make sure
that the tone fits the audience – will the audience be offended or attracted by
your writing?
Fix it
Once you know what to fix, you
must do it. Be daring. You will not have a good paper if you are afraid to change
things. It may be easier to completely re-type your paper while just looking at
your first draft. How should you change your paper?
Erase words, sentences or paragraphs; eliminate all unnecessary or
irrelevant ideas.
Add words, sentences or paragraphs; add new points, details, or
explanations.
Reorganize words, sentences or paragraphs; put everything in a
logical order.
Re-write words,
sentences or paragraphs; keep your ideas but present them better.
Revise it
again
If there is time (make time!), revise your second draft. And
keep revising. Good writers actually tend to revise more rather than less as
they gain more writing experience.
When you are happy with your paper's content, it's time to
edit. Try to do this in the week before your paper is due.
Editing will make your writing more precise and easier to
understand (not necessarily shorter, but clearer). When editing, you examine every
sentence and ask yourself if has a purpose and if it’s complete, clear, and
concise in English. A grammar resource and an English-English dictionary are
both helpful editing tools.
Experiment with the following strategies until you find what
works best for you.
Read your paper out loud slowly (or ask
someone to read it to you).
You will hear mistakes, wordiness, repetition, and lack of
clarity, which you can correct.
If you don't know how to correct something, start looking
through those grammar books.
Use the spell check and grammar check
functions in Microsoft Word.
They will find some things, but not everything. This should
not be your only strategy.
Editing strategies for specific
problems
Connection between ideas: Read
the beginning and end of every paragraph to make sure they flow together.
Go through the paper sentence by
sentence and find connections between them.
o
If the ideas don't connect, add a transition,
pronoun, repeated word, synonym, or another sentence.
Wordiness o Find all the very long sentences (25
words or more). Can they be rewritten more clearly and concisely?
o
Read each sentence. After each one, ask, “Is it
necessary to the paragraph? Does it add something new? Could it be eliminated
completely or partly? Could it be combined?”
o
Read each sentence word by word. Is every word
necessary? Could some be eliminated or re-written in a shorter, clearer way?
Could passive verbs be rewritten as active ones?
Repetition, Lack of variety o Read each sentence and ask, “What is the
purpose of this sentence?” Does it introduce a new idea? Does it support or
explain the previous idea? OR does it just repeat it?
o
Read the first 5 words of each sentence to find
sentences starting in the same way (such as with a transition word). Change
some so your sentences have variety.
o
Look at the length of every sentence. There
should be a variety of short and long sentences. Make sentences shorter by
dividing them or longer by combining.
Find words which are repeated a lot. Use a thesaurus to find other words
to use.
Sentence structure: Go through the
essay sentence by sentence. Label the subject(s) and the verb(s) in every
sentence. Make sure each sentence has a subject and verb. Make sure there are not
too many subject-verb combinations in each sentence and that word order is
Subject+ Verb+ Object. Fix fragments, run-ons, and word order.
Word choice: Find all the long
words.
Could some be replaced with
shorter, clearer words?
Clarity, Non-English
structure: Read your paper without using a lot of effort – you're just
reading because you are interested in the topic. If you have to read something
twice, it's not clear.
o
Read your paper and translate it into your
native language in your head. If it's really easy to translate, then maybe the
writing is not following English structure and style.
o
Say your ideas out loud in English. Write
exactly what you said. You probably speak more clearly than you write.
When you think your paper is
ready to turn it, it's time to proofread (check for mistakes). If you don't
proofread, your paper may be full of careless errors, which shows the audience
that you were too lazy, rushed, or uncaring to fix your paper. To proofread:
Do
not look at your paper for 24 hours (this requires time management skills!)
Print your paper – you'll see mistakes that you might not
see on a computer screen.
Start with the last sentence of
your paper and read your paper sentence by sentence, going backwards. (This
will help you focus on grammar, not content).
Cover all the other lines with
another piece of paper.
Point
your pen at each word.
Think about the grammar,
spelling, punctuation, capitalization, meaning... of every word.
If you are unsure about
anything, use a dictionary or grammar book. If you are still unsure, mark the
line and ask someone for help.
Fix any mistakes that you found.
Print your paper and proofread it again!
It is a long, slow, unpleasant
experience at first. However, the more you proofread, the easier it gets, the
better your English gets, and the higher your grades get too.
Clear Objective, Thesis, and Focus
|
|
|
____ Thesis is clear
|
____ Thesis has no errors
|
|
____ Thesis has point of view
|
____ Purpose of paper is clear
|
|
____ Thesis answers research question
|
____ Every paragraph relates to thesis
|
|
____ Thesis is surprising
Organization/Cohesion
|
____ Every paragraph supports thesis
|
|
____ Clear introduction, body, conclusion
|
____ Clear, logical order of paragraphs
|
|
____ Connections between paragraphs
|
____ All sentences connect to each other
|
|
Introduction
|
Conclusion
|
|
____ Hook sentence catches attention
|
____ Connects to last body paragraph
|
|
____ No too general statements
|
____ Summarizes thesis and main points
|
|
____ Enough background info about topic
|
____ No new or superfluous information
|
|
____ Section ideas explained in introduction
|
____ Shows importance of topic
|
|
____ Thesis statement is easy to find
Body
|
____ Effective closing statement (“wow”)
|
|
____ Each paragraph has only one point
|
____ Support is explained/analyzed
|
|
____ Logical, convincing points
support thesis ____ Balanced source info and own ideas
____ Topic sentences in every paragraph
|
____ Each
paragraph explains “why/how”
|
____ Topic sentences relate to thesis
|
____
Specific explanations
|
____ Topic sentences have point of view
|
____ No
repetition of ideas
|
____ Sufficient supp. points in each para.
|
____ No
irrelevant ideas or information
|
____ Supporting points are in logical order
|
____
Appropriate concluding sentences
|
____ Source information is introduced
|
____ Each
para. proves its topic sentence
|
____ Use of specific details as support
|
____
Alternative/opposing views included,
|
____ Source information is integrated
|
minimized
|
|
|
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July 27). Choosing a topic. In Guide to
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site: http://www.lib.duke/edu /libguide/choosing.htm
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(1996). Writing research papers: The City
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(1999). Writing research papers: A
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Markham, P., & Waddell, M. (2001). 10
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Barron’s.
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